Marine protected areas stage of establishment and level of protection are good predictors of their conservation outcomes

Despite the importance of active management and strong protection in driving marine protected areas (MPA) performance, coverage area remains the sole indicator for global targets. To assess whether conservation quality lags behind quantity, we conducted a global meta-analysis of 123 MPAs. We show that MPAs’ Levels of Protection and Stages of Establishment are reliable proxies for MPAs’ ecological outcomes; hence, they are good candidates for tracking MPA quality. Actively managed MPAs have significantly higher fish density and biomass than non-protected surrounding areas, while MPAs that are only implemented do not. The effectiveness of actively managed MPAs can be maximized if they are fully or highly protected. Lightly and minimally protected areas that are only implemented can deliver negative outcomes. Our findings highlight the important interplay between stages and levels as developed in the MPA Guide and support the need to include both in conservation targets to track not only MPA quantity but also quality.

Keywords

Marine conservation Marine protected areas Global targets MBA quality Harvested fish Effect sizes Meta-analysis Stages of establishment Levels of protection MPA guide Ecological outcomes

URI

http://hdl.handle.net/10400.12/13584

Citation

Horta e Costa, B., de Benito-Abelló, C., Pike, E., Turnbull, J., MacCarthy, J., Harasta, N., Fragkopoulou, E., Roessger, J., Sullivan-Stack, J., Grorud-Colvert, K., Gill, D., Morgan, L., Gonçalves, E. J., Zupan, M., Gonçalves, J. M. S., & Claudet, J. (2025). Marine protected areas stage of establishment and level of protection are good predictors of their conservation outcomes. Cell Reports Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsus.2025.100345